A Brief Architectural History of the Great Pyramid at Giza
"So the Pyramid is a work of dubious morality and magisterial ingenuity; …it tells us not just of the efforts made to extend the life of one many, but the drive of humans to try to understand the point of living." (Hughes, 32)
Shrouded in mystery, the pyramids are a captivating enigma calling us to unravel their secrets. Built over 4,500 years ago, they are one of the best-known manifestations of a civilization's belief systems in the built environment. The Egyptians had a distinct perspective on human existence and the afterlife that was reflected in their architecture. Although we still lack a complete picture of many aspects of their civilization, we are slowly uncovering more information, specifically related to their architecture, which provides deeper insight into how the Egyptians viewed the human experience and made sense of their world. Studying their architecture can help us uncover lost wisdom, insights about human nature, design and engineering techniques, and their views on our existence.
"In many ways, the ancient Egyptian concept of humankind's connection to the universe is only now being scientifically realized. The people of Ancient Egypt recognized, before the Greeks had identified the concept of the atom, that we are not distinct from nature but part of it, part too of the molecular chemistry of the wider cosmos, and subject to its planetary revolutions. They observed that matter never disappears; it becomes part of a bigger matrix, taking on other forms. So the passage of a human through death to the underworld and eternal life (with the rebirth of one's soul) was not a possibility but a certainty…" (Hughes, 32)
Early Egyptian Settlement
How did the first humans settle near the Nile River's Egyptian section? Around 7,000 years ago, the Sahara Desert was a vast grassland spotted with lakes. About 6,000 years ago, this area began to dry up, causing the native people to move south towards sub-Saharan Africa and east towards the Nile Valley. Around the same time, the alluvial carpet on the edges of the Nile was forming. These fertile deposits of silt and sediment accumulating along the river's edge created opportune conditions for agriculture to emerge and laid the foundations for a thriving civilization, highlighting the Nile's crucial role in the development of Egyptian civilization.
Archaeology shows evidence of human settlement along the Nile River, specifically in its narrowest areas. However, as the Nile grows and expands in width, especially in areas where the floodplain becomes wider, traces of human settlement are limited. In these narrow sections of the Nile, we begin to see the first signs of a germinating Egyptian civilization.
The Nile
Like many great cities and works of architecture throughout history, the Pyramids were built near water. Today, they exist in a barren landscape foreign to what it would have looked like when they were initially conceived. However, the construction of the Pyramids was able to occur primarily due to the river as the Giza Plateau, and its surrounding settlement would have been a vibrant river settlement. The Pyramids were truly "a riverside attraction." (Hughes 45)
The Nile River's annual flooding has established life's rhythm and pulse for millennia. The floods deposited fresh sediment and silt that is optimal for farming. The riverbanks of the Nile teem with lush vegetation and wildlife. These swampy banks foster an ideal environment for the papyrus plant to thrive. Papyrus became an essential plant for the Egyptians, used in construction, shipbuilding, creating home goods, and numerous other applications. One of the most important uses for the prolific plant was as a medium for writing. This plant allowed early Egyptians to begin exploring the written word and documenting the activities of their lives.
Other larger species of trees and vegetation on the banks of the Nile were cultivated and used as fuel for cooking, baking, processing copper, and making masonry mortar. Large quantities of ash were discovered in excavations around the pyramid building sites, suggesting that the Ancient Egyptians used massive quantities of the natural acacia trees to fuel their civilization.
Predecessors to the Great Pyramid
In predynastic times, around 3100 BCE, early Egyptian rulers built their burial structures, called mastabas. They were common in the first dynastic period and primarily constructed from mud brick. They were typically rectangular in plan, containing multiple rooms covered by a flat or gently pitched roof structure and typically had a slight slope to the exterior walls. Some had qualities similar to those of the ancient temples in Mesopotamia such as niches on the exterior walls.
The burial grounds were moved north to Saqqara around 2800 BCE. The early burials built at Saqqara began experimenting with pyramidal shapes and underground tunneling. Early forms of the Pyramid began with the step pyramid, which was constructed for a King named Djoser of the Third Dynasty. The step pyramid was innovative for Egyptian civilization, prompting many historians and archaeologists to search for more direct influences. Many believe there is a direct influence from the ancient ziggurats in Mesopotamia as it seems that trade and exchange of ideas had been established by the two civilizations then. The stepped Pyramid of Djoser marked a pivotal shift in Egyptian architecture. This Pyramid would serve as the prototype for centuries of Egyptian pyramid building.
In the Fourth Dynasty, King Sneferu (Khufu's father) ordered the construction of a pyramid with taller, more slender proportions and a steeper slope. When the builders realized significant structural issues due to the height and slopes, the base footprint was increased, widening the Pyramid at its base to support the additional loads. The slope of the remaining portion of the Pyramid was also adjusted to help reduce the height, resulting in a clear line where the silhouette bends inward and begins a more gradual slope to the top. This Pyramid is referred to as the Bent Pyramid.
As a boy growing up, Khufu would have seen this failure, which most likely had a profound impact on him. When Khufu came to power, he could amend this failure with his own tomb. The stage was set for Khufu. The construction techniques had been refined, engineering tested, and administration and organization had been established. Now, it was his time to order the construction of his Great Pyramid.
Why the Giza Plateau
One of the main reasons the Royal House decided to move to the Giza plateau was the natural topography, site conditions, and geology. The temple projects constructed for Sneferu learned many valuable lessons through the challenges and failures of his pyramids. When his son, Khufu, came to the throne, they had built up extensive knowledge, experience, and infrastructure for pyramid construction.
The Giza plateau had functional and symbolic qualities that attracted the Egyptians. They undoubtedly examined the area before selecting it as the site for the Pyramid and found that it was made up of a large limestone bedrock plate. Today, we call the plate the Moqattam Formation. The Moqattam Formation is composed of sedimentary deposits on a prehistoric sea floor that accumulated tens of millions of years ago.
It is composed of fossilized Nummulites, which were extinct plankton-type organisms. This sedimentary limestone makes up a large portion of the stone the Egyptians used to construct the pyramids. It is also the stone from which the Sphinx is carved. The bedrock foundation would provide the perfect base for Khufu's new Pyramid.
The Moqattam Formation had a gentle slope and was unbroken by major gullies or fissures. It contained a variety of softer and harder limestones suitable for different types of construction. At the foot of the plateau lies the Nile Flood basin on the valley floor. This location would be optimal for creating a harbor where boats and ships could transport materials by water to the site of the Pyramids. There is a gradual slope from the riverbank up to the top of the plateau.
The layout of the three pyramids on the plateau suggests a relatively advanced awareness of geological principles and site planning. The three pyramids are located along the plateau's "Strike." A strike is a geological term for a location perpendicular to the direction of the slope when you walk along the edge of the hill without traveling up or down the slope. This ensured that the three pyramids were built around the same elevation.
Before building the pyramids, the Egyptians studied and understood the site's geological features and qualities. They were instinctive planners, demonstrating knowledge and expertise in their decision-making, likely due to previous generations' history of trial and error.
The Pyramid sits on the western side of the Nile River. The setting western sun backlights the pyramids, casting an awe-inspiring silhouette. The Giza plateau is naturally raised above the surrounding landscape, making the pyramids visible from long distances away. This would have been an important site planning consideration for the builders and kings.
"So the point of all this 'great toil' was to ensure that the omnipotent ruler enjoyed a glorious afterlife so that the people of Egypt could live safely in their land. The creation of the Pyramid as a giant ascension machine was vital; this project was simply the most important thing that could happen in heaven and earth." (Hughes, 32)
Khufu
The Great Pyramid was built for Khufu. The two other pyramids on the Giza Plateau were built for Khufu's son Khafre and the third for his grandson Menkaure. To understand the Khufu's Great Pyramid, we must understand the man who ordered its construction. This man's psychology, belief systems, and ambitions were the driving forces behind this work of architecture. Unfortunately, we know very little about Khufu. It is almost ironic that we have so little information about the patron of one of the world's largest ancient wonders. All we have today depicting Khufu is a tiny ivory sculpture about 3 inches tall. However, we know that King Khufu appears to be the first Egyptian King to present himself as a deity, which would have been critical to assembling such a large and sustainable workforce.
Who Built the Pyramids
How did the 4th Dynasty organize Egyptian society to build the pyramids? We do not know for sure. However, there is evidence that the pharaohs began to restructure Egypt between the 3rd and fourth dynasties. They created administrative districts called nomes, organizing and registering each settlement in their territory. Some believe that during this restructuring, the pharaohs leveraged them to come to Giza to work on the Pyramids. There may have been some degree of force or coercion; however, it may also have been attractive to the people as food, protection, and lodging were provided. It was also seen as a tradition where it was their duty to participate in the custom of pyramid building. Some have described this as a type of early Feudalism.
There are also clear accounts from the 4th Dynasty and the Old Kingdom describing captives or war being sent to work on the pyramids. Eventually, the captives were integrated into society; however, in this scenario, their work on the Pyramid was enforced and not voluntary.
The Workers Village
Mark Lehner and Zahi Hawass are two of the most prolific archaeologists and historians working at the Giza Plateau. In 1988 they discovered and published the findings of a workers' village on the Giza Plateau. When excavating, they found bakeries containing large bread pans for baking massive quantities of bread, workshops, kitchens, living quarters, and industrial building preparation yards. They also found large amounts of animal bones, suggesting that the workers on the pyramid were fed a diet rich in meat. These findings seem to disprove many of the theories about the pyramids being built by other civilizations or foreign groups of people.
The Pyramid Harbors
Another finding by Lehner and Hawass was the presence of man-made canals and dredged harbors at the base of the Giza Plateau. The Egyptians dug these canals and harbors in the earth, allowing the Nile River to fill them so they could be accessed by boats. This would allow exotic stones, not found on the Giza Plateau, to be brought to the construction site and used in the Pyramid construction. At the bottom of the old harbor, archaeologists found fragments of red granite from Aswan. The granite block seems to have fallen into the harbor during transport.
Construction of the Pyramid
The Great Pyramid consists of a core of rough-cut limestone blocks filled with packing stones. When it was first constructed, an outer casing of smooth limestone finishing blocks wrapped the entire formation like a skin. These outer casing finishing blocks were stripped away during the Middle Ages. When visiting the pyramids today, one will see the outermost core or backing stone layer, which originally lay behind the casing stone skin. The size of the blocks in the inner core varies significantly, and the precision of the masonry work is relatively imprecise, as it was not meant to be seen.
The setting stones that make up the body of the Pyramid were set using large quantities of mortar. Before the Great Pyramid, previous generations of Egyptian builders used tafla, a natural clay found in the desert.
The builders used gypsum mortar in the Great Pyramid. Gypsum mortar must be heated to create the ash that goes into the mortar mixture, which would have required significant amounts of natural fuel. Nile Acacia trees were harvested from the riverbanks and the surrounding countryside to serve as fuel.
The lack of precision and sloppy infill construction of the Pyramid's core seemed acceptable. In other areas of the Pyramid, those that would be seen, the builders exhibited extreme accuracy and precision. The base dimensions, slope, and orientation show exceptions degrees of precision even compared to masonry construction today.
The massive stone foundation under the Great Pyramid is one of the most intriguing finds that Mark Lehner and Zahi Hawass, discovered. Due to the slope of the limestone bedrock on the Giza Plateau, the Egyptians created a solid level bedrock pad about 16ft tall that would be the inner core. Many had previously believed that the entire body was made of stacked stone; however, after revealing this bedrock base, our estimates for the amount of stone blocks used in the pyramid have significantly decreased. This bedrock core or massif is stepped and accommodates the lowest four courses of masonry at the base of the pyramid. They have excavated along the pyramid's western side, exposing the inner stone pad for people to see.
Inside the Great Pyramid
Inside Khufu's Pyramid are three chambers: the King's Chamber, the Queen's Chamber, and the Subterranean Chamber. A network of interlinking passages connects these individual chambers. Compared to the pyramids of the past, Khufu attempted to push the boundaries and establish new engineering techniques to create chambers deeper beneath the Pyramid and higher in elevation within the structure. The exact use and purpose of each chamber are still not completely known.
One of the Pyramid's most interesting and puzzling features is the small air shafts that exit the King's and Queen's chambers and terminate on the exterior of the pyramid skin. Archaeologists recently sent robots with cameras into these shafts to investigate them. Inside, they found several blocks of stone with iron pins that seemed to be purposefully placed to block the shaft. Today, there is much speculation about the purpose and use of the shafts.
Technical Measurements for the Great Pyramid
Khufu's Pyramid is the largest of the three on the Giza Plateau. Weighing roughly 6.5 million tons, it is the heaviest work of architecture in the world. The entrance to the Great Pyramid faces north. The slopes of the sides are nearly perfect at 54 degrees, which is the measurement for all future pyramids. The Pyramid is 481 feet tall, and the limestone blocks that make up the Pyramid weigh an average of 2.5 tons each.
Speculative Beliefs Behind the Pyramids
The pyramids seem to be constructed as vessels for the journey into the afterlife as a physical manifestation of a creation myth. Others think the inspiration for the form could have come from seeing rays of sunlight penetrating through the cloudy sky, creating a pyramidal shape shaft over the horizontal landscape.
When we think of the Pyramid, we must not consider it a singular work of architecture, engineering, or monument. It was the physical manifestation of a concept deeply embedded in their belief system—an edifice that spanned the physical and supernatural worlds. To the Egyptians, these two worlds were not separate; they were the same. One could ascend to the sky through the pyramids. In ancient Egypt, the word MER, or Pyramid, can be translated as place of ascension.
The Temple Complex and Rituals
It is important to note that the pyramids at Giza are not freestanding isolated structures. They are each part of a larger temple complex, accompanied by walls, open courtyards, entrance halls, sanctuaries, causeways, and a constellation of smaller pyramids. Each of these elements is hypothesized to be part of the ritual or processional process for the royal funeral ceremony. Each architectural element has its own function and symbolic purpose in the process.
One of the most interesting elements are the large causeways or covered walkways that connect the lower valley pyramid to the larger temple complex and Pyramid up on the plateau. The causeway was an enclosed walkway with a roof containing broad ceiling beams that had a slit down the center allowing a sliver of light to illuminate the walkway from above. The causeway ran approximately 825 meters (2,2707 ft) from the lower valley temple to the upper temple attached to the Great Pyramid.
The valley temples are gateways to the temple complex and create a dramatic, elongated procession from the valley floor up towards the Pyramid.
Large enclosure walls surrounded each Pyramid, creating a paved courtyard at the base of the structure. On the eastern side of each Pyramid, a large temple was connected to the base of the Pyramid. The causeway connected this temple to the lower valley pyramids. Satellite pyramids are also present at the base of the three larger pyramids.
Swaths of large mastaba tombs are located on the east and west sides of the Great Pyramid. These structures are arranged in orthogonal grid patterns aligned to the cardinal directions. The cluster of mastaba tombs around the Pyramid's base suggests a belief that proximity and association with the King's tomb would benefit them in the afterlife.
Wadi al-Jarf
First discovered in 1832, the site of Wadi al-Jarf lay dormant for decades. Rediscovered with excavations resumed in 2011, archaeologists discovered one of the world's most ancient and massive building preparation sites dedicated to constructing Khufu's Great Pyramid.
Current excavations extend nearly three miles along the coast of the Red Sea. At the site, archaeologists discovered a man-made cave where they discovered many tools and papyrus documents. The site was a back office or building material preparation site that contributed to the construction of the Great Pyramid.
The site uncovered boats, copper and stone tools, urns to hold food and vast storage rooms. The papyrus fragments uncovered at the site give accounts of the workers' daily lives. The site is groundbreaking as we gained a more detailed look into the lives of the average Egyptian, not just those of royalty or higher status.
One of the most insightful documents uncovered is the Merer Papyrus. Merer led a crew of forty workmen who shipped stone from Wadi al-Jarf to the Giza Plateau on a schedule of three round trips every ten days. Their task was to supply and support the construction of the Pyramid.
The documents at Wadi al-Jarf convey that building the pyramids was an Egypt-wide endeavor. They show that countless teams were organized to gather different raw materials to support the construction of the Pyramid. These teams were well organized, precise in their documentation, and often competed with each other to complete their tasks.
Sourcing Materials for the Pyramid
The interior core stone blocks of the Great Pyramid were quarried locally near the Giza Plateau, and these quarries are still visible near the pyramids; however, many other materials needed to be sourced from North Africa and the Near East.
The teams gathered Dolerite stone, a hard volcanic stone used for hammering, from the western desert. Turquoise and copper mines were established in Wadi Maghara and the Sinai Peninsula. Black dolerite was imported from the Hajar Mountains to carve sculptures and inscriptions. The white limestone casting stones came from Tura, a small town on the opposite side of the Nile River. The red granite came from Aswan, a city farther south on the Nile River. Different types of wood, such as Cedar, Juniper, pine, and oak, were sourced and shipped from Lebanon and the Eastern Mediterranean along with a variety of mineral pigments.
When Khufu came to power, control of Egypt was centralized, making controlling resources across his kingdom easier. International trade and shipping relations were also established, allowing the Egyptians to trade their agricultural resources for gold, copper, and exotic stones. Egypt was also well known for its exquisite art, and this commodity was respected in adjacent areas, creating high demand and trade value for it. These factors gave Egypt significant leverage and power in establishing trade.
The Great Pyramid rose roughly 130 feet higher than any pyramid before it. It was clad in smooth-finished white Tura limestone to set it further apart. The Pyramid would have glimmered and reflected sunlight from the sky. It would have been futuristic, modern, and a manifestation of the deeply held Egyptian belief system. At the top, the capstone would have been covered in a gold or electrum finish.
Recent Discoveries
New studies, discoveries, and theories about the Great Pyramid are on the rise today. Recent discoveries about a new chamber roughly the size of two semi trucks are being revealed to the public. Inside the chamber are variation of hieroglyphic inscriptions that the team hopes to decipher. Hawass and his team are leading these discoveries. They propose revealing these discoveries on a live stream in the coming weeks.
There are also new radar scans conducted by Italian and Scottish researchers claiming the discovery of a massive subterranean structure under the pyramid. If proven accurate, this would potentially rewrite the history of ancient Egypt. Corrado Malanga leads the team from Italy's University of Pisa, and Filippo Biondi from the University of Strathclyde in Scotland. They announced the findings of what they describe as a vast underground city reaching more than 6,500 feet beneath the pyramids. Many scientists and specialists have questioned the validity, capability, and accuracy of these scans. However, investigations are still underway.
Conclusion
The construction of the pyramids signifies ancient Egyptian fascination with and uncertainty about death and reincarnation. Today, 4,500 years later, many still grapple with the same question: What happens to us in the afterlife?
The ancient Egyptians built their pyramids and mastabas as vessels to care for the deceased during their journey through the afterlife. They believed that if the King were looked after, Egyptian civilization would continue to thrive, and future generations of their offspring would be protected. The collective belief in this idea prompted and helped to create a sustainable effort to construct such massive monuments. This is a testament to the power of human belief.
We have tremendous potential when humans gather around a set of beliefs, for better or for worse. The pyramids make me ask: What collective human beliefs are in place in our contemporary culture? Are they productive? Do they have purpose and meaning? Or are they hollow, filled with distractions and illusions? Through examining architecture, larger questions such as these can be brought to our awareness. Architecture can prompt us to reflect on our values and beliefs and see if they are serving us or detracting from the essence of what it means to be human.
"We now understand that chemically we are all stardust, that we are all part of the matrix of the universe, that at death, the constituents of our bodies will become another form of life. The Stone Age and the Bronze Age got there first. By sponsoring wonder-generating projects such as the building of the Great Pyramid on the Giza Plateau, as a means of re-joining the 'indestructible,' Egypt's kings and pharaohs were living the concept of molecular chemistry. For the Old and New Kingdom Egyptians, death began the journey to another life in the universe." (Hughes, 43)
Sources
Clarke, Somers, and Reginald Engelbach. Ancient Egyptian Construction and Architecture. New York, Dover Publications, 1990.
Hughes, Bettany. The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Vintage, 23 Apr. 2024.
Lehner, Mark, and Zahi A Hawass. Giza and the Pyramids : The Definitive History. Chicago, The University Of Chicago Press, 2017.